The Difference between Agricultural Societies and Hunter

Discussing the Distinctions between social groups In the course of time, people have been searching for techniques and approaches to adjust to geographical, social, and cultural environment in the past and in the modern contexts. Gradual development of social and culturally different groups and nations, however, is not predetermined by a biological evolution, or by unequal conditions for the civilization development.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The Difference between Agricultural Societies and Hunter-Gathers Societies in the Past specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In this respect, Brody distinguishes between two social groups – hunters-gatherers and farmers – that were formed irrespectively of each other due to the certain historical and social conditions (14). Hence, the author states that farmers are more mobile, restless, nomadic, and expansive in comparison with hunter-gathers who prefer to stay on a more secure, home territory (Brody 114). The difference between agricultural societies and hunter-gathers societies also lies in temporal characteristics and the level of technological penetrations (Gonzalez 3). In particular, farmers are more developed in technological terms because they should work out strategies for increasing productivity and advancing farming practices. However, Gonzalez emphasizes that original farmers who lived on the territory of the North American were more inclined to use ecology-friendly techniques to sustain traditional modes of farming and agriculture (27). In discussing the differences between farmers and hunter-gatherers, Evans-Pritchard outlines two distinguishing criteria that identify the Nuer tribes: political system and ecology (47). In particular, hunter-gathers do not have particular organizational structure and subordination; instead, their political order is more close to anarchy. In ecological terms, the hunters and farmer can b e classified in accordance with spatial discontinuity. In contrast, Pollan speaks about farmers and foragers through their attitude to plant and animals (123). In particular, farmers considered corn not only as the food, but as the good that can be sold. Therefore, there were mode focused on advancing their technologies and increasing yield. In their turn, foragers were less developed in these terms because they correlated food with culture and spirituality.Advertising Looking for term paper on anthropology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More While examining the elements of Nuer culture as compared with contemporary communities originating from the immigration, Holtzman emphasizes that the Nuer life is closely connected with the waves of immigrations to the United States and explains that hunter-gatherers are more attached to traditions, kin relations, and culture (42). They had little interest in technologies and other technique s because their values were not based on materialistic objects, but on the spiritual development. Social and Historical Forces That Are Responsible For These Modes of Life in the Recent Past Considering social factors affecting the formation of the farmers and hunter-gatherers, mostly all humans were hunter-gatherers over the years. However, this mode of life gradually altered due to the rise of agriculture that developed in societies. Paradoxically, despite of their chaotic structures, these groups are often united on the basis of kinship and tribe membership. Brody also emphasizes that hunter-gatherer tribes have a distinct division of labor on a gender basic (2). In this regard the nomadic groups of the past are closely associated with the migration process in the contemporary societies. Hence, the waves of immigrations predetermined by political and social processes made people change their modes of lives and choose a hunter-gatherer style of living (Pollan 24). The social and e conomical instability, therefore, played a decisive role in forming the groups (Gonzalez 103). The analysis of historic precondition distinctly reveals the evolution of farmers and hunters where the conventional strategies applied to agriculture have been gradually replaced by modern industrial farming (Gonzalez 172). Social and Historical Forces As Presented in the Current Situation Identifying the group: historical and social influences The migration processes in the twentieth century caused significant shifts in the lives of the American people and immigrations. Blend of cultures and traditions, therefore, have made both groups change heir lives and outlooks on the current situation. I would like to present the migration process in the United States and how the waves of migration influence political environment and modes of life of different groups, which are the brightest examples of modern conjunctures. It is possible to assume that migration paths are closely connected with gr oup’s motivations and goals to explore other lands and possibilities. Therefore, those people who migrate to the United State were less concerned with economic and social conditions, but were guided by the possibility to innovate.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The Difference between Agricultural Societies and Hunter-Gathers Societies in the Past specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Providing connection between the past and the present. The migrating groups debunk the myth about historical and social predetermination of the group affiliation either to farming or to foraging communities. Hence, the facts that the migrating groups derive from the agricultural societies does not guarantee that they could change their farming orientation. Hence, the migration of the African tribes to the United States pushed them to the marginal areas proves that these groups with a deep historic of hunting and gathering ca n be simply converted in an agricultural society. Such process can also be called as the second Neolithic revolution, the transition from foragers to farmers. Such a conversion is predetermined by necessity to adjust to the new mode of living. From migrated groups from Africa, agriculture and farming was the only means for survival; it also provided a favorable ground for adjusting to alien culture and tradition and for meeting the needs of a new social and political environment. Works Cited Brody, Hugh. The Other Side of Eden: Hunters, Farmers, and the Shaping of the World. New York: North Point Press, 2001. Print. Evans-Pitchard, E. E.. The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of Livelihood and Political Instituions of a Nilotic People. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1940. Print. Gonzalez, Roberto Jesus. Zapotec Science: Farming and Food in the Northern Sierra of Oaxaca. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001. Print. Holtzman, Jom. Nuer Journeys, Nuer Lives. Needham Heights: Allyn Bac on, 2000. Print.Advertising Looking for term paper on anthropology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Pollan, Michael. The Omnovore’s Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals. New York: Penguin Press, 2006. Print. This term paper on The Difference between Agricultural Societies and Hunter-Gathers Societies in the Past was written and submitted by user Pedro K. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

American healthcare system Essay Example

American healthcare system Essay Example American healthcare system Paper American healthcare system Paper American healthcare system is the most expensive in the world. Sad, but true. Average expenditures for health care is about $5,540 per capita – much more than in other countries. Two different groups of Americans has different attitude to these money: sick persons want pay less and health care providers want earn more. A recent WHO survey ranked the United States as th 37th in overall health system performance. USA has honorous place between Costa Rica and Slovenia. Why? Everebody knows that the United States spends more on health care (13.7% of GDP) than any another nation. But Americans are the most dissatisfied with the quality of health care. Only 40% of Americans think that their national health care system is good. 80% Americans say the health care system needs major changes or a complete rebuilding. At the beginning of the new millenium there were more than 38 million uninsured adult Americans. In addition to the lack of health insurance among nearly 15% of the population of the United States, there are major economic and racial and ethnic disparities among uncovered persons. Nearly two thirds of the uninsured come from low-income families, and nearly three quarters of these individuals are from families with at least one full-time worker. The worse situation we have with accessibilty of health care for Hispanics. Official commentary from White House: â€Å"Many Americans enjoy access to good choices in employer-sponsored health care plans, but many others do not have good coverage options or are in danger of losing them.† President team proposed some approaches to the reform: â€Å"patient-centered health care through coverage thet you choose†, â€Å"improving the health care system by creating an environmnet thet encourages and rewards quality† and â€Å"effective support to strengthen the health care safety net and increase biomedical research†. Commentary â€Å"from the streets† (David Baron’s homepage): â€Å"I consider our current health care system to be a restricted market. By this I mean that the insurance industry is a group of profit-seeking firms, but consumers do not have free choice to switch between the market alternatives. Many of the people who defend the current system claim that a free market is best. However our current system is not a free market. Many of the problems in our current health care system are a result of the restrictions in this market. Consumers cannot register their discontent with their insurance plans because it is difficult to switch plans. Because of this difficulty, plans can fail to provide quick resolution of claims, good information, or consistent policy because customers are tied in to their current plans through their employers and through the difficulty of switching plans. Considering our current system of a restricted market, one of the simplest solutions to this problem would be to have a free market for health insurance, so that people could â€Å"vote with their feet.† Citation from Insurance Journal â€Å"The poll found that 84 percent of likely Illinois voters characterize the current state of Illinois medical liability system as a crisis or major problem, and more than three-quarters (77 percent) think the system needs major changes or a complete overhaul. More than two-thirds (68 percent) of those surveyed rate dealing with the impact of high medical liability insurance rates on health care as an extremely important issue for the Governor and state legislature to address. And 62 percent reportedly say they would be more likely to support their state legislator in this falls elections if their lawmaker voted for comprehensive reform†. So the problems on the federal and state level are the same. There are several problems in the medical insurance, inluding increase of the number of uninsured people, aging of population which will put enormous stresses on the pension and Medicare system. American insurance system need to evolve into a more sensible strategy over time†. Americans are very inpatient nation. Were very keen on new technology and procedures, and we dont have to want to wait for them or have to travel long distances. Probably, we will always spend substantially more relative to our Gross National Product than other countries. We have inequality in access to health care. There is the different attitude toward government that exists around the country. Some of the lower middle class probably are at the most risk. They may not have insurance or their insurance may not be as complete and theyre not easily eligible for assistance. Thats probably the biggest problem, the lower-middle income working uninsured population or maybe even underinsured population. An administrator of Centers for Medicare Medicaid Services, Thomas A. Scully used more strong words: â€Å"We spend billions of dollars, and we have no idea where its going. We make multi-billion-dollar mistakes.† He says â€Å"I had three goals coming into the job. One was to shake up HCFA for the better and make it much more transparent and more consumer-responsive. Secondly, I want to make the program more understandable and responsive to seniors. I think the whole health care system is much more responsive when beneficiaries know what theyre getting and they have information about quality.Third, I really want to get Medicare reform done, and Id also like to do something about the uninsured†. In his article published in the American Journal of Public Health (2003) Dr. Mohammad Akhter wrote   about advocacy of the development of universal health care system. Their approach is based on a single-payer mechanism. But Akhter considers â€Å"that a good alternative to the single-payer system that is based on incremental extension of existing coverage mechanisms, accompanied by fundamental reform of the health care delivery system. This approach is in keeping with the traditional methods of policy development in the United States, and I urge APHA to assume leadership in advocating it.† Another professional, professor Dennis G. Shea speak about three different approah in health care reform. The first one â€Å"would advocate using resources to develop systems, both public and private, for coordinating and organizing care†. Its goal to avoid errors that compromise the quality of care, duplication of efforts and espenditures, to increase responsiveness. Another approach â€Å"puts patients more at the center of their care, making them partners, as much as patients†. It means that people should be personally responsible for their health. The third approach â€Å"emphasizes that a basic commitment to care for all should be the primary value in our health system†. â€Å"This would require a redistribution of funds from those who are well-off to others to accomplish the goal. The increased governmental involvement could actually increase costs, create shortages and waiting lists, and reduce quality†. The President of National Coalition on Health Care, Henry Simmons, a physician, said: The main point I want to leave with you is that the crisis we face cannot be resolved by our present strategies or with the patchwork efforts of the past. Neither can it be resolved by dealing with only one or several of the problems we face. Resolution will require comprehensive health system reform. Health providers consider Medicaid and Medicare to be the most efficient health plans today. And they tell that the private sector insurance BIG BUSINESSES are inefficient, and charge outrageous premiums to their customers while decreasing benefits and reimbursements. CIGNA, United Healthcare, BC/BS, Medcost, Aetna and other companies are the major cause for our health care crisis. They should be eliminated and replaced with one universal plan. How was that perception shaped by the purchasers of health care? Customer hopes for better. They see that Americans who cant afford to pay huge medical bills usually get treatment anyway, through a mixture of private and public charity. But this happens only after treatments are delayed, families are driven into bankruptcy and insurers spend billions trying not to provide care. People think that we need an universal health paln for all Americans. Health coverage should be a right, not a privilege. References: http://dbaron.org/views/health.html http://forum.johnkerry.com/lofiversion/index.php/t43005.html ajph.org/cgi/content/full/93/1/99 insurancejournal.com/news/midwest/2004/07/23/44355.htm whitehouse.gov/infocus/medicare/health-care/

Women In the Antebellum Reform Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Women In the Antebellum Reform - Research Paper Example The reform organizations involved both men and women in relation to the issues they raised to advocate for change. It is reported that for a full week session, women and men from North West and mid west travelled to New York to conduct such speeches, which advocated for change (Elizabeth 91). Gradually, movements for change by women and men, who belonged to the reform organizations, started addressing different religious beliefs, goals and strategies. In addition, the leaders of reform groups started demonstrating to the public ways in which a better society would perform tasks to avoid massive killings. The mission for the activists for change was that one time; the United States of America could be improved, uplifted and perfected. Other issues that characterized the Antebellum period were such as; financial panic which erupted in New York in early 1837 to the extent that few people made purchases on shops. Wealthy people who supported different groups had run Bankrupt and New York registered a large number of street beggars that year compared to the previous years. Unemployment, hunger, homelessness, prostitution, and criminal cases were highly registered (Finkelman 39). Advocates for change during the antebellum era held debates over gender and cultural issues; segregation on grounds of lasses. The effort to test reforms was also attributed to the fact that white women and men dominated charity organizations that they took the rest of the citizens as their subordinates. As a result, other citizens were present to acts of oppression. The following report contains works of various authors in their books about the status of women in Antebellum. Professor Ginzberg gives an idea of women in relation to antebellum improvement in two ways. In the first way, women are examined alongside factors such as belief, class and race, upon which reform movements were based. In another perspective, Ginzberg views women participating in favour of social change. Women particip ated in social change through distributing Bibles, resisting intemperance, charity initiatives, tracts, they were opposed to slavery, and in general, women demanded their rights. The Antebellum Era was so, characterized by alteration mechanisms, which sought to empower women in the world over (Finkelman 39). One of the basic features of concern for women in Antebellum was to express their attitude towards sex. Women’s views about sex in Antebellum can be traced in the works of Helen Leftkowitz. Helen discusses about the social and cultural implications of gender and sex education in the antebellum era. Helen bases her studies at Amy Greenberg, Pennsylvania state University. Women challenged the idea that social problems, which affected America at the time would be changed through maintaining the ruling governments. Reformers made movements, one after the other in search for reforms in the government systems (Elizabeth 91). According to Oregon Public broadcasting media in Amer ica, the antebellum movement, which he also terms as a period of industrial action had social, economic, religious and political consequences to women in the United States and the surrounding countries. An article by Oregon Public broadcasting reveals that I the Antebellum movement, as middle class people and the original born families who were abandoned and made to be the production units of the home. As men left household chores to look for jobs in offices, women remained calm and barely got chances of moving to look for jobs in public places. Oregon public broadcasting however reveals that women of different classes and races

Globalisation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Globalisation - Essay Example However, interrelations and dependence among the different economies of the world was present from the historical period but what appears to be new with the concept of globalization is the intensification of the awareness of people. Local transformations as well as extensions of social relations laterally through time and space are parts of the process of globalization. Thus, with globalization the society will be without borders and boundaries with no specified cultural territories. This often results in dominance of the developed countries of the world over the poor economies in their efforts of decision making which often leads to the exploitation of the dominant economy leading to their degradation of the environment and human rights suppression. Thus, the objectives of the global economists are to suppress the negative impacts of the globalization process so that the positivities of the phenomenon could dominate. (Globalization101, n.d.: Waters, 2001, pp. 2-4) Background of glob alization There have been constant debates among economist regarding whether globalization is a unique phenomenon of the recent modern period. However, history reveals that trade relations existed among economies from historical age. There were also cultural interactions among countries, and work relations as people migrated to different countries of the world for better living from the time immemorial. From the years before the First World War capital flows from one country to the other, trade relations between countries and immigration of workers existed. The change that ultimately occurred with globalization is the increase in the volume of unrestricted trade, doubling of the capital flows amongst economies and rise in the number of the migrants. For over the past twenty years the features of globalization also took a change of course. Globalization that was previously restricted to the developed economies of the world spread among the developing economies with the opening of the markets of these nations through liberalization. Thus, the economic relations among the nations underwent a huge change with the spread of globalization across the borders of the rich countries. With globalization, the trade pattern experienced considerable change. The developing economies of the world that previously exports raw materials to the developed world emerged as serious competitors of manufacturing products of the industrialized nations. Thus with the increasing trade relations the developing economies mainly India and China experienced continuous economic growth. With globalization and increased trade relations world production increased by about 30% which further increases international trade by almost 80%. This resulted in reducing the cost of production through specialization of products and thus helped in increasing the living standards of people. The increase in the trade of service sector implies that nations are becoming richer. With the advancement of technology and communication trade in services has been popularized in recent years. The developing countries that opened up market through policies like trade liberalization, deregulation of the capital markets and privatization of state owned industries experience huge capital inflows and stands as the emerging economies of t

Macro economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Macro economics - Essay Example Inflation that comes with recession is normal but hyperinflation is a nightmare. Hyperinflation occurs when inflation is out-of-hand making a currency lose its value while prices soar at an alarming rate ( Sheffrin, 341). Inflation is actually a normal part of an economic cycle which occurs at certain times in a year, but when inflation is not headed towards equilibrium, hyperinflation happens. Among the world’s worst case of inflation, Hungary stands out due to the phenomenal nose-dive of its currency – the pengo. This happened to Hungary between the last quarter of 1945 towards July 1946. In order to fully understand the magnitude of this hyperinflation, it must be pointed out that a year before the hyperinflation ( 1944 ), the pengo’s highest denomination was only 1,000. A year later, the highest denomination was already a staggering 10,000,000 pengo. It meant that one needs an awful lot of money to purchase an item due to the low value of currency. This instance did not end the cycle , it even got worse when the pengo reached its highest denomination in 1946 – a shocking 100,000,000,000,000,000,000 pengÅ‘. The rate of the pengo was fluctuating faster than the weather as radio announcements were made daily to adjust its rate. Even when the pengo was replaced by the forint ( new currency ) in 1946, still the value of the circulating Hungarian amounted to â€Å" one-thousandth of one US dollar† ( Judt 87). In fact, some pictures from old Hungarian newspapers depict people sweeping the almost useless banknotes. In contemporary times, this can be compared to the hyperinflation that occurred in Zimbabwe; however, the Hungarian incident is more severe as â€Å" the inflation reached a peak of 1.3 x 11016 percent per month (prices double every 15 hours)† according to the rep ort of Zimbabwe Situation in 2008. There are many reasons why hyperinflation occurs in an economy. Among the prevalent factors are economic depression, aftermath

Isolation of Caffeine From Tea

Isolation of Caffeine From Tea   James Maitland Xanthines are purine alkaloids synthesised in plants such as coffee, tea, and cacao, with the most known xanthine being caffeine, theobromine and theophylline. Their production is limited in the aforementioned plant species compared to other plant alkaloids such as morphine, nicotine and strychnine, which are widely expressed across the plant kingdom. Caffeine is the worlds most consumed psychoactive drug, with approximately 74% of it used as beverages, 25% utilised for pharmaceutical formulations and the remainder for other purposes.3 It is chemically known as 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine, with a complex purine-based structure, chemically associated to adenine and guanine found in DNA and RNA Caffeines also found in human tissues as well as various organisms. It is appreciated for its role in stimulating the CNS, kidneys, bronchial smooth muscle and relaxing the cardiac muscle.2,3 As a therapeutic, caffeine is administered as a powdered form, but the psychoactive substance found in tea leaves constitutes 2-5% caffeine per weight. Caffeine is used to treat apnea of prematurity, fatigue, in analgesic preparations with aspirin and paracetamol, and in various other roles including night duties (promoting alerting effect by antagonising adenosine A1 and A2A receptors in the brain), and in sports as a performance-enhancer. Because of the prerequisites for its usage in beverages and its significant potential in the pharmaceutical industry, caffeine has been isolated primarily from coffee. However, the increasing demand for naturally derived caffeine for consumption necessitates additional other sources, for its extraction.4 Contrastive to its utilisation and because it is unregulated, there has been increasing concerns pertaining its connection to adverse side-effects on human physiology regarding its high consumptions by some, which is linked with tachycardia, arrhythmia, muscle tremors, headache, coma, or fatality.4,2,3 As such, alternative forms of beverages have been decaffeinated (e.g., green tea) to eliminate the described potential side-effects and the demand for alternative forms of beverages goes hand in hand with increasing environmental-friendly techniques used to decaffeinate the crude product. This article, therefore, looks at the water extracting method for the isolation of methylxanthines and using thin-layer-chromatography and IR spectroscopy to characterise individual methylxanthines, as well as discussing their Rf values, the use of caffeine in cold and flu remedies, and a brief look into the caffeine market. MATERIALS AND METHODS Preparation of Tea solution 200ml of water was placed into a beaker and the solution was allowed to boil using a Bunsen burner. Tea (10.3052g) was then added into the solution and boiled for approximately 15 minutes. The beaker was then removed from the heat and 50ml sulphuric acid was then added to the hot solution and shake to ensure no emulsion occurs. The solution was later allowed to cool at room temperature and then filtered using Buchner system. Extraction of Caffeine 20ml of 10% sulphuric acid was added to the filtrate and stirred. Sulphuric acid converts the tannins to their salts, therefore, making them insoluble in chloroform, though soluble in water. The solution was then extracted by 3 successive washes of 50ml chloroform using a separating funnel, collecting the organic layer for each consecutive wash. The mixture of the solution was frequently shaken with occasional venting to prevent pressure buildup. The extracts were collected and dried by adding the catalyst anhydrous sodium sulphate for 10-15mins, removing all the water, leaving behind a fine powder. Isolation of The Caffeine Remove the sodium sulphate by filtration using the Buchner system. The chloroform was then evaporated by the use of a rotary evaporator, leaving behind the methylxanthine crystals. The weight of caffeine was then measured and the yield calculated. Thin Layer Chromatography TLC was conducted at room temperature and was used to verify the presence of caffeine by obtaining the methylxanthines, which was re-dissolved in 2ml of chloroform, 1ml of which was examined under TLC along with reference solutions and mother liquor. The UV-absorbing methylxanthines absorb UV light and so fluoresce agent (dichloromethane) in the stationary phase was used for visualisation in the UV254nm. On the TLC plate (Silica gel GF254; Dimension: 5cm x 20cm), a 1cm line was drawn above the base of one end of the plate. Capillary micropipette to place a spot of the reference solution (Caffeine, theobromine, theophylline, and mother liquor) along the line drawn on the plate and labelled as appropriate to reduce confusion with the other samples, which were also labelled as appropriate. This step was repeated using different micropipettes for each sample, creating spots at about 1cm from each other. The TLC plate was then placed upright in the TLC chamber contacting the developing solvent (Chloroform: Acetone: N-Butanol: 30% Ammonia, at 30:30:40:10 ratio) at a level below 0.5cm (the origin) and sealed with using a watch glass. The solvent was allowed to migrate along the TLC plate so it reaches at least 1cm from the top and once the solvent had evaporated, the plate subsequently visualised under UV light as most organic compounds are colourless in the naked eye, facilitated by the fa ct that the TLC plate contains chemical additives that fluorescent under UV-light. Infra-Red Spectroscopy The remaining methylxanthine solution of caffeine obtained was used to produce an IR spectrum to deduce the functional groups in the compound. The measured spectral range was between 600 4000 cm. The sample was placed on a sampling window and spectral data collected using a spectrum software (PerkinElmer Spectrum Express version 1.02.00, UK).10 Table 1: Weight of crude caffeine Caffeine 0.1606g Percentage yield = Mass of crude caffeine / mass of tea bags x 100% = 0.1606g / 10g ÃÆ'- 100% = 1.606% Table 2: Distance travelled by the standard solutions and Methylxanthines (mm) C TB TP ML Sample 36 24 18 Spot 1= 34 Spot 2= 26 Spot 3= 16 34 Note: C=caffeine, TB = Theobromine, TP = Theophylline, ML = Mother Liquor, S = Sample Rf value= Distance travelled by the compound (mm) Distance travelled by the solvent (mm) Caffeine = 36mm/38mm = 0.95 Theobromine =24mm/38mm = 0.63 Theophylline =18mm/38mm = 0.47 Mother Liquor spot 1= 34mm/38mm = 0.89 ML spot 2 = 26mm/38mm = 0.68 ML spot 3 = 15mm/38mm = 0.39 S= 34mm/38mm = 0.89 Table 3: Rf values of the standard solutions and Methylxanthines (mm) C TB TP ML Sample 0.95 0.63 0.47 Spot 1= 0.89 Spot 2= 0.68 Spot 3= 0.42 0.89 Note: C=caffeine, TB = Theobromine, TP = Theophylline, ML = Mother Liquor, S = Sample Figure 1: IR spectra of the caffeine. Peak 3000 cm-1 represents amides and amines, and peaks between the regions 1700 -1600cm-1 indicates the presence of alkene in caffeine. A and B shows the carboxyl groups C=O bands of carbon-2 and 6 in region 1700-1659 cm-1. Figure 2: IR spectrum of the standard. The peak around 3000 is due to amides and amines. Peaks 1700-1600 is alkene in the caffeine molecule The structure of caffeine (Figure 3) is a function of how it behaves and interacts with other molecules and defines its properties such as solubility (e.g., due to the presence of nitrogen atoms), boiling point, as well as the melting point. The tertiary purine-based caffeine constitutes an amine, amide and alkene function group, all containing lone pairs of electrons on the nitrogen atom. The achiral molecule is polar in nature due to the electronegativity difference between carbon-oxygen and carbon-nitrogen covalent bonds due to dipole-dipole interactions, London dispersion forces, and hydrogen bonding once in water. The higher melting point of this molecule is as a result of these strong intermolecular forces and would necessitate high energy to break the associated bonds.1,2 Figure 3: Structures of caffeine, theophylline and theobromine Figure 3 indicates that the methylxanthines share similar structures (purine ring), but the slight molecular difference in structure results in the differences in properties. The difference in structure is based on the positioning of the methyl groups. Caffeine has three methyl group in carbon-1, 3 and 7; theobromine has two methyl groups on carbon-3 and 7; and theophylline has two methyl group on carbon-1 and 3, and is deficit of methyl group at position 7 and so has only a proton that can be donated, the same for theobromine having a proton on carbon-1, making them a weakly amphoteric compared to caffeine (a base compound).2       The TLC result shows the distance travelled by caffeine, theobromine and theophylline were 0.95, 0.63 and 0.47mm, respectively (Table 2). This implies that caffeine is more of a solvent compared to theobromine and theophylline. Mother Liquor contains three substances as shown by spot 1 to spot 3 in Table 3, with spot 1, 2 and 3 having Rf values of 0.89, 0.68 and 0.42, respectively. This means that spot 1 and caffeine are more attracted to the mobile phase, interacting less with the polar adsorbent (thats interaction with the silanol group of the silica gel, with the most prevailing interactive force being dipole-dipole) as the compound is less polar, restricted to form hydrogen bonds by its three methyl groups (these contain electrophilic sites and the compound possess electrophilic and nucleophilic function groups, but caffeine is not a proton donor so less polar to adsorb) and so having large Rf values, consequently spent less time travelling towards the solvent front as it is more soluble in the mobile phase. Theoretically, compounds that are less polar characteristically dissolve in the solvent, thus migrate faster, and that the silanol group of the silica surface is highly polarised and is capable of forming dipole-dipole and hydrogen bonds. The more polar compounds such as theophylline (spot 3) strongly binds to the silanol group of the adsorbent or the stationary phase as theyre both capable of hydrogen bonding (theophylline is more of a proton donor thus has more electronegative substituents than for example, caffeine, so binds tightly to the stationary phase), and so moved slower than both spot 1 and 2, but also spends more time closer the origin, held by the resistive force of the sorbent.5,28 Spot 1 is likely to be containing samples of caffeine as they travel almost the same distance. Spot 2 is likely to contain samples of theobromine and spot 3 contains samples of theophylline as they have almost similar Rf values. IR spectroscopy was employed to e lucidate the types of the functional groups in an unknown sample. The results from the IR (Figure 1) shows the presence of a compound indicated by the energy speaks. The spectrometer produced a graph based on the measurements of the photon within 600 4000 cm-1 frequencies. Comparison between the IR spectrum of the standard solution (Figure 2) and that of Figure 1 confirms the likeliness in functional groups shared between these solutions. Figure 1 indicates photon energy peak visible at 3000 cm-1, representing amides and aliphatic amines6, and peaks between the regions 1700 -1600cm-1 are due to the presence of alkene in caffeine molecule9. A and B specifies the carboxyl groups (C=O) of carbon-2 and carbond-6 in region 1700-1659 cm-1, indicating the most intense bands.17 Opinion on the use of caffeine in cold and flu remedies The effects of caffeine vary around the body and are dependent on the dose limit (400mg), at which beyond this parameter will elicit a range of physiological effects including muscle tremors, stomach upset, urinary incompetence, and a possible death. Below this dose limit, however, its effect is less detrimental to health.11 Due to it being readily available in foodstuffs and medicines, some may not be aware of the imposing dangers of caffeine, coupled with the fact that the FDA and the European guidelines consider caffeine not being a nutrient, but a natural ingredient found in beverages and so does not require identification in labelling of caffeinated product unless theres added caffeine in the product.12 This makes it a daunting task for those tracking their caffeine intake especially those that are more vulnerable to its side-effects. Caffeine is issued both as a prescription and as an OTC medication treating various conditions from lethargy to being used as an adjuvant in analgesic, as well as in flu or cold remedies.12 Flu causes rhinorrhea, resulting in loss of fluid, which is counter to sustaining the bodys fluid balance needed for healthy wellbeing. The elderly are the most at risk if not hydrated and the problem exacerbates with the consumption of diuretic substances including any of the methylxanthines.14 A literature review by R. J. Maughan and colleague of caffeine ingestion and its effects on fluid balance assessed various age groups (adults) and the elderly of both sexes. Robertson et al. (1978) reported that R. J. Maughan and colleague administered a single dose of caffeine (250mg) and a placebo to the subjects and urine was accumulated for 3hrs. The result produced an increase in urine output from 366  ± 30 mL (mean  ± SD) on the placebo trial to 469  ± 43 mL on the caffeine trial, accompanied b y an increase in urinary sodium excretion. However, in the same report by Robertson et al., other studies indicated that the diuretic effect of small doses of caffeine had minimal effects, which may be in the same dose range in these flue/cold remedies. It was also reported that long-term caffeine users are not susceptible to this diuretic effect and may not lose water via urine output14, but those that are may be disposed to electrolyte abnormalities (e.g., natriuresis) to kidney dysfunction. The mechanism in which caffeine induces diuresis is not yet clear, but it is believed that the compound acts as a phosphodiesterases inhibitor in the kidneys, along with its antagonistic effect on adenosine receptors.15 Another complication that may arise using caffeine remedies is the possibility of drug-drug interactions such as in the case of taking tizanidine (muscle relaxant), causing low blood pressure and dizziness16, or its inhibitory effect on the antipsychotic medications clozapine and olanzapine, metabolised by CYP1A2. Caffeine may also pose as a competitive inhibitor of CYP1A2 if metabolised at a slower rate compared to an administered drug, thus minimising the drugs plasma concentration with the likelihood of toxicity.20 The compounding benefits of caffeine, when consumed within physiological limits, cannot be contested. Studies have shown that the groups most at risk of caffeine overdose are young people/children and adolescents due to the lack of awareness and incorrect social perception regarding the benefits versus harmful effects.17 It was reported by the American National Poison Data System that 6,309 cases related to caffeine overdose. A recent article by the telegraph newspaper reported that some students came close to fatality upon accidentally overdosing on caffeine (consumed 30000mg) and were placed on dialysis to remove the intoxication from the kidneys.19 So, in support of it still being a legal stimulant, not only does the benefits outweighs the adverse effects, the compounds plasma half-life is approximately 5hrs. This fast pharmacokinetics or elimination via urinary excretion entails that its concentration in the blood will always be regulated, adverse side-effects occurring or at lea st decrease its effects.20 Due to caffeine being readily available, there are no age limits for their purchase and are not costly either as beverages. The FDA and EMA must assume responsibilities in engaging and communicating with the most at-risk groups, using public education campaign, and firmly addressing the potential risks of overdosing, especially when using multiple caffeine products in combination, and also labelling of such products, indicating the caffeine concentration, as well as targeting the medium used by these at-risk groups such as social media, the internet, and television. The European legislation, however, has taken the incentive in labelling beverages containing caffeine equal to or over 150mg caffeine per litre, affirming in their statement, High caffeine content. Not recommended for children or pregnant or breastfeeding women.17 Additionally, self-monitoring of caffeine concentration by providing device similar to those used by diabetic patients may assist with staying within physiologi cal limits, but also restricting accessibility (age-dependent) might just be one way to control the likelihood of abuse. As a commodity, caffeine can be obtained in various forms for many applications (cosmetics, medical, etc.) and there is always a huge demand, which are popular amongst young people, particularly with the emergence of caffeine-fuelled energy drinks that are used to mix alcohols in social venues.21 Compared with other drugs, the Global Drug Survey 2014 (Figure 4) reported that caffeinated energy drinks were the fourth most drug bought (45.9% prevalence use) after alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis. This illustrates caffeines importance both at physiological level, and as a big earner for the industrys major players in global caffeine market (Pfizer, Boehringer Ingelheim, CSPC Pharma, BASF, and Cocam) as it is consumed by 90% of the worlds population.24,25 One of the drivers of the industry is the production of coffee, which is forecasted to produce 156.6 million bags in 2016/17, and global consumption to be 153.3 million bags.26 This points out the growing demand for caffeinated products, predominantly in traditional markets including Canada, EU, USA, Japan, Norway and Switzerland, but also in emerging markets; Turkey, Algeria, Russia.27 Figure 4: Prevalence of top 20 drug use. Caffeinated drinks was among the most drugs bought in the year 2014.21 It is concluded by the study that the amount of caffeine extracted in tea was almost consistent with the theoretical constituents per weight, 2-5%. This research yields 0.1606g (1.606% ) from 10kg of tea bag and so was impossible to recover 100% of caffeine, greatly impacted by the fact that the reaction was never at completion, not all the caffeine was extracted through the funnel separation, loss of product may have occurred due to emulsions, discrepancies with the instruments due to factors affecting calibration, and steaming during brewing affects the mass of the extracted caffeine. One way to improve the percentage yield may be to explore different organic solvents. Although caffeine has numerous health benefits within physiological optima, it is also detrimental and causes death if these limits are breached. As such, healthcare authorities, as well as the caffeine industry must put in place measures so it is better regulated, and may mean being transparent about the health benefits/risk factors, and spread this awareness in all media used by their target users, especially young people as this is the group that are less aware of the risks. References   Ã‚   Caffeine: The Molecule. [2017 Feb 9]. Available from: http://caffeinethemolecule.weebly.com/physical-properties.html Preedy V.R, editor. Caffeine Chemistry, Analysis, Function and Effect. UK: The Royal Society of Chemistry; 2012, p.3 -6,44 Vuong Q.V, Roach P.D. Caffeine in Green Tea: Its Removal and Isolation.[2017 Feb 16]. Available from: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15422119.2013.771127 Vuong Q.V, Bowyer M.C, and Roach P.D. L-Theanine: properties, synthesis and isolation from tea. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2011; 91: 1931-1939 Analyzing a Mixture by Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC). [2017 Feb 17]. Available from: http://cactus.dixie.edu/smblack/chemlabs/analyzing_a_mixture_by_thin_layer_chromatography.pdf Gunasekarana S, Sankarib G, Ponnusam S. Vibrational spectral investigation on xanthine and its derivatives-theophylline, caffeine and theobromine. Spectrochimica Acta Part A. 2005 Caffeine. [2017 Feb 16]. Available from: https://tinyurl.com/hsbppmn Al-Hitti IK, Ibrahim SS. EXTRACTION, IDENTIFICATION AND DETERMINATION OF CAFFEINE AND TRACE METALS IN THREE TYPES OF TEA LEAVES. J. of al-anbar university for pure science. 2009 Sing BM et al., Determination of caffeine content in coffee using Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy in combination with attenuated total reflectance technique: a bioanalytical chemistry experiment for biochemists. Biochemical Education. 1998 Palo M et al., Quantification of caffeine and loperamide in printed formulations by infrared spectroscopy. JDDST. 2016 Behind the hype: Caffeine. [2017 Feb 12]. Available from: http://nutritionandactivity.govt.nz/sites/default/files/2%202%20NPA161%20Behind%20the%20Hype-Caffeine_5.pdf Why isnt the amount of caffeine a product contains required on a food label?. [cited 2017 Feb 12]. Available from: http://www.fda.gov/aboutfda/transparency/basics/ucm194317.htm Caffeine and Your Body.[Cited 2017 Feb 13]. Available from: https://www.ctclearinghouse.org/Topics/Customer-Files/Caffeine_And_Your_Body_052113.pdf Maughan RJ, Griffin J. Caffeine ingestion and fluid balance: a review. J Hum Nutr Diet. 2003 Dec;16(6):411-20. Zhang Y et al., Caffeine and diuresis during rest and exercise: A meta-analysis. J Sci Med Sport. 2015; 18(5): 569-574 25 Most Severe Caffeine and Drug Interactions. [2017 Feb 14]. Available from: http://www.caffeineinformer.com/caffeine-drug-interactions Caballero B, Finglas PM, Toldra F, editors. Encyclopedia Of Food And Health. Oxford: Elsevier; 2016 S. Jain, et al., Caffeine addiction: Need for awareness and research and regulatory measures. Asian J Psychiatry. 2017 Bodkin H. Students left fighting for lives after taking enough caffeine for 300 cups of coffee in botched university experiment. Telegraph. 2017 Jan 25 Caffeine: An Evaluation of the Safety Database. In: Gupta RC, editor Nutraceuticals: Efficacy, Safety and Toxicity. London: Elsevier Science Publishing Co Inc;216. P421,430. Caffeine. Technology, Products, Market, Manufacturing. [2017 Feb 10]. http://www.primaryinfo.com/industry/caffeine.htm The Global Drug Survey 2014 findings. Dr Adam R Winstock. Global Drug Survey. [2017 Feb 10]. https://www.globaldrugsurvey.com/past-findings/the-global-drug-survey-2014-findings/ Caffeine Drug Interactions. Anna Duggett. Drugsdb. [2017 Feb 10]. http://www.drugsdb.com/cib/caffeine/caffeine-drug-interactions/ Global Caffeine Market Forecast and Analysis 2016-2021. Radiant Insights. [2017 Feb 11]. https://www.radiantinsights.com/research/global-caffeine-market-forecast-and-analysis-2016-2021 Caffeine Market 2016 Sales, Price, Revenue, Gross Margin and Market Share. GlobalInfoResearch.[cited 2017 Feb 10]. Available from: https://www.wiseguyreports.com/reports/637714-global-caffeine-market-by-forecast-to-2021 Coffee: World Markets and Trade. Foreign Agricultural Service/USDA Office of Global Analysis.[cited 2017 Feb 10]. Available from: https://apps.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/circulars/coffee.pdf An industry study: The Coffee Industry. Mairin M. OConnor. [2017 Feb 10]. Available from: http://www.slideshare.net/MairinOConnor/coffee-industry-analysis Thin Layer Chromatography. Industrial Economics.[2017 Feb 16]. Available from: https://yvesrubin.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/tlc.pdf

The Red Tent by Anita Diamant :: Red Tent Anita Diamant Essays

The Red Tent by Anita Diamant The author and her times   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Anita Diamant, author of the historic fiction novel, The Red Tent, is a devout Jewish-American living in Newtonville, Massachusetts with her husband and daughter, Emilia. She has written five books about contemporary Jewish life, The Red Tent being her first novel.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Diamant may have been influenced by the recent resurgence of creating Midrashim, or stories that attempt to explain the Torah by examining its subtexts. Modern women have taken a keen interest in this practice, hoping to expand on the minute biblical mentions of women like Dinah.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Form, structure and plot   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Red Tent is organized in a seemingly complicated yet beautifully simple way. There are three main sections; Dinah's mothers' story, her childhood, and her life in Egypt. Each is further divided into chapters.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Although the story is divided into sections, the plot progresses intact. The exposition consists of Jacob's arrival and subsequent marriages to Leah, Rachel, Zilpah and Bilhah. Twelve of thirteen children are born, including Dinah, narrator and only daughter. Dinah grows up helping her aunt/mother Rachel, who brings her to the city of Shechem. The initial incident occurs when Simon and Levi, two of Dinah's oldest brothers, enter the city of Shechem and murder all of the resident men, including Dinah's beloved husband, Shalem. Cursing her entire family, a pregnant Dinah is taken to Egypt by Shalem's mother, Re-nefer. In the rising action the child is born, a boy who Re-nefer names Re-mose and raises as her own. He becomes a superior Egyptian scribe, and is eventually assigned to the king's right-hand-man. In a climactic irony, Re-mose's employer turns out to be Joseph, Dinah's youngest brother. The truth about Shalem's murder is revealed to Re-mose, who in turn vows to avenge his father's death on Joseph's head. He is thwarted by Dinah, who convinces him to remove to the north. Joseph and Dinah attend the death of Jacob in the falling action, both forgiving the wrongs committed against them in their father's name. The story concludes with Dinah's death. Point of View   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Diamant has Dinah effectively tell her story from three different narrative perspectives. The bulk of the novel is related by Dinah in first person, providing a private look at growing up and personal tragedy: "It seemed that I was the last person alive in the world" (Diamant 203). Dinah tells the story that she says was mangled in the bible. Understandably, Dinah's relation of her mothers' stories is done in third person narrative, since she herself was not yet born.